The Payne-ful Experience of Current Professional Development
by 
Laura Ann Osterman

A Research Paper submitted to Dr. Les Toczko Introduction to Educational Research (EDR-610)
Northern Arizona University
July 1, 2002

Abstract
Osterman asks, "How are Payne's 'hidden rules' theories inherent in her Professional Development seminars and materials supported by current trends and reforms in Professional Development?". PD is examined in the research literature review between 1990 and 2002, emphasizing four innovative approaches to bridging the dichotomy between practice and theory said to exist in current PD. The author juxtaposes her involvement with after school PD seminars conducted by Payne with current trends in urban PD reform. She finds that trends in authentic PD do not support the usage of these materials grounded in "hidden rules theory". They distort and omit essential experiences that contribute to the development of a teacher knowledge base grounded in inquiry, scientific method, reflection, collaboration, and networking with institutions of higher learning. They also lack supportive data to her claim that participation leads to increases in standardized testing scores.

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The Payne-ful Experience Within Current Professional Development
Continued exposure to after school seminars, materials, and lectures have led this author to question the knowledge base of these experiences as authentic Professional Development as set forth in the current literature surrounding trends and reforms in Teacher Education. A review bounded by the years of 1990-2002 and based on research in the urban setting has furthered my ability to compare and review research surrounding this topic. Professional Development in the form of quick fixes which are said to contribute to increased standardized test scores are, presently, "in vogue", at least in some Tucson schools, and seems to encourage teachers to hold beliefs that they are developing professionally. Research, in fact, suggests that a large majority are involved in experiences of regression towards the very goals they are trying to accomplish. This paper, first, reviews the variety of definitions that are heavily emphasized within the literature base of Professional Development. Secondly, it examines four innovative approaches to bridging the dichotomy that exists between theory and practice in this context. Finally, Payne's theory is compared to criteria set forth within the four innovative approaches towards trends and reforms in authentic Professional Development and the knowledge base within the discussion.

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Professional development acquires its definition and nuances from a plethora of distinguished experts within the knowledge base. It has been referred to as:
•	the acquisition of a particular domain of competencies and shared set of commitments to guide practice (Newmann, 1993).
•	A gradual shift from instruction of basic skills towards teaching for higher order thinking (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Newmann, 1993).
•	An " inexplicable wave of enthusiasm" (Smyth, 1992 P. 268) for reflective approaches.
•	A process of complex collaboration. A balance of different sets of knowledge that reflect different levels of experience and epistemology (Richardson, 1994 ; Kagan, 1993 ; Glickman, 1990 ; & Liberman, 1992).
•	A creative way to bridge the gap and avoid the theory practice dichotomy (Stoddard, 1993).
•	A vehicle that provides accountability for professional teachers "by ensuring that they have the tools to apply theory in practice and by socializing them to professional norms and ethics" (Darling -Hammond, 1992. p.91).

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•	An in-depth sustained professional development resides at the
heart of the reform process (Darling-Hammond & Mc Laughlin, 1995; Liberman, 1995; Liberman & Miller, 1991; Little, 1993).
•	Seeking to create a system of networking, reculturing and restructuring, which creates successful development of new values, beliefs, and norms.(Fullan, 1996, Leiberman & Grolnick, 1996). 
•	Dependent on teacher's opportunities to learns about new ideas and adapt them to local conditions (Little, 1993).
•	A catalyst of change for those who participate within an understanding of themselves as professionals and in the field of education (Borman & Cusick, 1998).
•	Providing for teachers an increased consciousness of themselves as learners focusing inward on what has been referred to as a" literate" life (Routeman, 1994).
•	An important tool for reflection in terms of individual growth because it creates an ability to discover strengths and weaknesses within the knowledge base (Dutro, et al. 2002).
There is a need which has developed historically to "bridge the gap" which exists in Professional Development designed to "avoid a dichotomy which exists between theory and practice" (Stoddard, 1993). In "Looking Toward the Future by Understanding the Past: The Historical Context of
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Professional Development", one begins to comprehend the complexity of issues that have effected, currently effect, and will continue to effect the design, implementation, and objective of professional development (Teitel, 1999). Specifically this article focused on Professional Development Schools. It stipulated that within the last 10 years Professional Development schools have spread rapidly, with over 46% of institutions that prepare teachers for the teaching field intermingling with over 600 Professional Development Schools. Credit for the conception of the idea of Professional Development Schools if often given to the Holmes Group (Holmes,1986,1990 &1995). The movement has had strong genesis in collaboration with universities, reform within the schools, education of the teachers, construction of a more professional environment within the teaching sector, and utilization of the existing standards and programs created by a variety of professional organizations and unions within the realm of education. Professional Development Schools have been viewed as places to resolve conflicts that exist between schools and institutions of higher learning (Teitel, 1999).
It was mentioned that support for the Professional Development Schools began as a result of several factors. First, a decrease in the support of universities budgets may have been the cause which led to their desire to link themselves with issues in school reform. This was mainly due to the perception that tax payers show more concern and support towards

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these types of reform (Frazier, 1994). Second, a multitude of Professional Development Schools were created with the monetary support from corporate foundations. Third, Professional Development Schools were seen as a way to respond to the propensity of the alternative certification movement which tried to put credibility back into the issue of teacher preparedness (Frazier, 1994). Fourth, Professional Development Schools have been thought of as powerful ways to create a more professional appearance. They appear as environments comprised of individuals with higher expectations. Teachers are held accountable for the pedagogical base and know how to use application of their knowledge in an ethical manner. Linda Darling-Hammond specifically defines what professional accountability means when she postulates that the schools serve as vehicles for ensuring that teachers have the tools to use the process of theory and application cohesively while being socialized in the norms and ethics of educational pedagogy (Darling-Hammond,1992, ; Teitel, 1999).
Within the past ten years four specific goals, all of which involve and require consistent collaboration, have emerged as a result of the desire to create accountability within the Professional Development School. First, teacher's students must continuously improve their learning. Second, all teachers must be sufficiently prepared to meet the needs of their students. Third, they must focus on progressive metamorphic professional development.

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Finally, they need to be involved in research and inquire as to how to improve existing practices (Teitel, 1999).
In conclusion the research suggests three reasons why continual growth of Professional Development Schools would be an incredible asset to the education knowledge base. They are seen as very powerful approaches in collaborative learning and teaching, show strong signs of networking, and place a strong emphasis on accountability (Teitel, 1999).
The second innovative approach can been seen in the Michigan English Language Arts Framework (MELAF). This was a federally funded initiative towards standards based professional development. It was a three year grant (1993-1996) that focused on integrated curriculum, instruction and assessment, systemic change, and creating an impact on schools, classrooms, teachers, and students. Their design focused on networking, reculturing, and restructuring, three areas previously emphasized by Fullen (Full~' 1996). They believed that these three areas would create a more supportive communal environment that would lead to greater successes within their professional development program. It had a tremendous impact on teachers and their capacity to gain more expertise and become more involved within their districts. They enacted the six following principals. First, they thought that the teachers themselves must experience the types of learning situations and activities that would occur in the classroom.

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Second, teachers must become more active learners, developing strong studious habits, which would include reflection, discussion, and further inquiry into educational pedagogy. Third, teachers must work in collaboration and support one another. Fourth, development from the ground up, identify potential mentors, and support from the administrative body was essential and necessary. Fifth, their experiences must include a variety of ways to learn, summer work shops given through institutions, annual implementation throughout the classroom, and the ability to have a follow up meeting to discuss and solve any problems that might arise. Finally, a tremendous amount of change would occur for those who participated and they needed to be able to understand and assimilate to new roles as an individual and as a group in order to honor the program's intended purpose (Dutro et al. 2002)
During the study M.E.L.A.F reviewed research into the role school districts play as contexts of reform (Spillane,1996; Spillane &Thompson, 1997). They discussed how school districts are not consistent in the ways that they pay attention reform movements. In addition, instructional change is dependent on teachers opportunities to learn about new ideas and adapt them to local conditions (Little, 1993).
Finally, districts play a major role in determining the nature, frequency, and effectiveness of these opportunities (Mc Laughlin, 1987; Standerford, 1997; Dutro et al. 2002).

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The methods within their longitudinal study consisted of open-ended interview and artifact study. They chose four school districts referred to as A, B, C, and D, respectively. District A was small and rural including 2,500 students. Second, District B was ethnically diverse and with close 10,000 students was considered to be large. Third, District C was considered to be the largest district in the study it represented the white middle class areas attended by over 10,000 students. District D consisted of a mostly white working class community of about 7,000 students. Each one of the four districts had two administrators and ten teachers become part of the project. There were cross district summer sessions and meetings, and monthly within district meetings during the two years of the academic project. Throughout the first year there was a focus on content of the standards, examining current teaching practices, and teachers need to research the standards in action. During the second year the focus shifted towards developing a curriculum within the district and documenting the student's performance and growth within the districts (Dutro et al. 2002).
The study came up with the following findings which showed levels of degree and inconsistency amongst the districts. First, teachers began to view themselves as visionaries professionals driven to instigate reform. Second, Teachers became more consciously aware of being learners themselves and focused on a more "literate life" (Routeman, 1994).

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Third, teachers became more reflective in the process. The practice of journal writing became an important tool for personal growth and realization of weaknesses and strengths. Fourth, they began to seem themselves as mentors after refining existing philosophies of learning and pedagogy, sharing and articulating them to their colleagues, and following through with execution and implementation of them in their classrooms. Fifth, the participants were more open to becoming "change agents" within their districts, outside of their districts, and with regards to advocating specific state political policies. Finally, teachers took on new roles as publishers. Several teachers wrote articles that were distributed at the state or local levels (Dutro et al. 2002).
District A's involvement was very active and had staunch support by its superintendent, the teachers who were participants, and their administrators. Their involvement was the most unique amongst the four districts because it appeared as both a bottom-up and top-down combination of reform. They focused on district wide efforts towards revision of curricula and implementation of portfolio assessment. District B lacked central administration involvement and was referred to as a clear case of "bottom-up" reform. The MELAF project created a provision for the appropriate sanctions from the state that were needed to expand their efforts. District C had a long history of substantial professional development, was the most actively involved in implementing the standards,

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and their involvement was classified as a "top-down" reform effort. They worked on refining their practices and paying close attention to benchmarks and standards. District D focused on community building and had the administrative support of the assistant superintendent.
They emphasized an increase in their confidence level due to validation and support throughout their experiences (Dutro et al. 2002).
In conclusion, the study examined the critical differences amongst the four respective districts and came to the following conclusions about the variables that may have contributed to the variation of degree and inconsistency within the four districts. It postulated that the changes amongst the districts could have been the result of several factors including, size and structure of the district, the district's "readiness for change", and the source of leadership within the district (Dutro et al. 2002).
The third innovative approach can be seen in a "learning community", pilot graduate program for 52 experienced teachers at the University of Wisconson-Stevens Point.( Slick, 2002). A "learning community" was defined as a group of individuals who establish group goals and values for working together collaboratively. In addition, the learning community model borrowed ideas from systematic organizational changes within the business community (Slick, 2002 ; Senge et al. 1999). This program focused on three goals. First, participants would need to complete a plan for improvement within their professional development.

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Second, They needed to complete a project that contained crowning achievement. Finally, they had to create a professional development teaching portfolio. The participants of this pilot program met for an entire weekend, one weekend out of every month. They created key values which they would adhere to while working together to accomplish their goals. They committed to be honest and responsible while holding themselves accountable in their pursuit of excellence. They also resolved to use integrity and be tolerant and understanding while respecting and supporting one another (Slick, 2002).
They came up with five standards that were considered almost identical to the national Board of Professional Teaching Standards. First, a "master teacher" will communicate in an effective manner with students, peers, parents, administrators, and the community. Second, they will be able to research, learn, understand, and apply appropriate technology when necessary. Third, they will be open to change in order to continuously grow and develop ways to identify, facilitate, and support the needs of others. Fourth, They will know their subject matter and its applications to the real world. Finally, they will facilitate a learning community that encourages self evaluation, and assessment of progress (Slick, 2002).
Following their experiences, the participants of the "learning community", made the following recommendations. First, provision of time needs to be made for teachers so they can learn and work by themselves

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and with collaborative groups. Second, an environment that encourages professional language needs to be created. Third, teachers need to have autonomy and a sense of a valid personal and professional voice .
Fourth, they need to have more opportunities to gain a sense of self worth and feel more successful. Fifth, they need to be part of an esprit de core, a communal environment with mutual sharing and understanding. Finally, they need more social and professional activities that might energize and motivate them to develop professionally (Slick, 2002).
In addition, the "learning community" came up with a number of ways administration and leaders could help them in their desire to develop independently and professionally. First, administrators need to foster an environment of mutual trust. Second, teachers must be given time to share in the decision making process. Third, emotional needs must be met first and a sense of community lies at the crux of these needs. Finally, teachers need to be able to engage in discourse addressing their individual differences and grievances on past issues in order to feel like they have a voice and establish tolerance and respect (Slick, 2002).
Furthermore, the members of the "learning community" gave four	
suggestions towards individuals and groups who might be interested in creating a "learning community". First, associate with positive people, locate a mentor, create new relationships, and steer clear of negative ideas, thoughts, or people. Second, learn to develop a sense of being tolerant and
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understanding of others values, and beliefs. Third, be someone who is brave and willing to stick their neck out. Finally, work consistently towards building a foundation of community and commit to adhere to those values (Slick, 2002).
The article concludes with several findings. First, that teachers who participated gained more focus and energy. Second, once they were aware of something better out there they became visionaries with regards to staff development. Third, participants created a spark within schools that encountered serious challenges during the year. Fourth, the conversations amongst teachers within the schools became more positive and supportive rather than negative and blame oriented. Conversely, It was mentioned that the only draw back to the entire program was that teachers who weren't involved felt left out (Slick, 2002). This might lead one to believe that a desire to belong might encourage teachers who might otherwise not be interested, to participate and become a part of a "learning community".
The fourth innovative approach is seen in the The Knowledge-Creating School. It provides powerful insight as to how to address the challenges of raising student achievement with regards to professional development. Specifically, teachers need to model the very qualities they are expecting currently from their own students, flexibility, networking, and creativity (Hargreaves,1999).

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He outlines several features of an ideal typical knowledge-creating school. First, the school should make an audit of its existing professional working knowledge. He postulated that a teachers "cognitive map" of the organization establishes a knowledge base of systematic, coded information that enriches and creates accomplishment (Hargreaves, 1999; Goodman, 1968; Weick and Bougon, 1996 ; Kerwin, 1993 ; McGee & Prusak, 1993 Skyrme & Amidon, 1997 ; Davenport, 1997).
Second, a Knowledge-Creating School engages in a management procedure to dispense and create new professional knowledge. His article purports a hypothesis that schools which embrace the creation of professional knowledge will display similar characteristics to those of high technology firms that are incredibly more successful in knowledge creation thereby responding to the demanding duality for higher research and development productivity and shorter development lead times (Hargreaves, 1999 ; Jelinek & Schoonhoven, 1990 ; Leonard-Barton, 1995 ; Dogson & Besant, 1997 ; Hussey,1997 ; Harryson, 1998).
In addition, Hargreaves suggests that knowledge creation arises out of the result of a combination of explicit and tacit knowledge and formulates four modes of knowledge conversion. Those being conversions consisting of socialization, internalization, externalization, and combination, as summarized the work of Nonaka & Takeuchi (Hargreaves, 1999 ; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).

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Socialization refers to a shared experience done through apprenticeship and on the job training which leads to the generation of tacit knowledge. Learning by doing creates internalization because explicit knowledge is converted into tacit knowledge. What was initially explicit becomes tacit through experience. Externalization occurs as a result of reflection and collective dialogue
amongst the members of the community environment. Combination occurs through the achievements of people with different knowledge coming together through networking, systematizing, and elaborating explicit knowledge by combining different bodies of knowledge (Hargreaves, 1999).
Third, a Knowledge-Creating School honors and validates the professional knowledge that has been created. Finally, the Knowledge Creating School needs to distribute and permeate the newly created professional knowledge throughout schools and the knowledge base as a whole. He stated that distribution of knowledge is currently in a seriously poor state. This area has been seen as problem for a lengthy amount of time by research and development authorities within the university system, who suggest that better distribution of their research would lead to greater improvements in teaching and learning. However, he pointed out that research indicates carefully planned distribution frequently led to lower levels of adoption and implementation. (Hargreaves, 1999 ; Glasser, Abelson, & Garrison, 1983).

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Within his article Hargreaves recommends four "Principal Seeds" that would contribute to the germination of a Knowledge-Creating School. First, Teachers need to be allowed to "tinker"( Tayack & Cuban,1995). Second, schools need to be heavily involved within the area of initial teacher training. Third, teachers need to become more involved within the area of school based research. Finally, schools need to make use of middle management, because those who serve in the areas of top management are to far removed from the schools to have the vital "hands-on" experience that is necessary in the creation of innovative knowledge and practices (Hargreaves, 1999).
He concludes his article by calling for action amongst teachers,
schools, and universities, within the areas of mode 1 and mode 2 knowledge.
Mode 1 uses the university as its base. It is pure disciplinary, homogeneous, expert-led, supply-driven, hierarchical, and peer reviewed. Mode 2 is applied knowledge, problem-focused, trans-disciplinary, heterogeneous, demand-driven, entrepreneurial, accountability-tested and embedded in networks. (Hargreaves, 1999, p. 9 ; Gibbons et. al 1994)

He recommends six proposals to create a reform within the framework of educational research. First, national structures should support efforts of group creativity and distribution by creating a more flourishing environments that are concerned with knowledge that can be utilized after negotiation has occurred. Second, the development of continuous networking is extremely meaningful and a goal should be developed towards achieving it.

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Third, school sites referred to as "beacon schools", need to be created to provide opportunity for the development and testing of mode 2 knowledge. Fourth, a balance needs to be established between universities, researchers, and schools that is more homogeneous and supportive. Fifth, funding needs to be offered to teachers who participate in the design of a Knowledge-Creating School, so that they will be able to engage in research and practices that will be beneficial in the future. Finally, a bridge of strong foundation needs to be constructed between Mode 1 and mode 2 types of of knowledge production (Hargreaves, 1999).
A review of the research in four innovative approaches indicates that Payne's seminars, trainers, materials, and workshops do not support current trends and reforms in Teacher Education and Professional Development. Payne theorizes that "hidden rules" of poverty prevent children from succeeding in schools because they are middle class environments with an entirely different set of rules. She hypothesizes that by applying her "hidden rules" theory, standardized test scores will increase. She offers no alternative explanation as to other variables that may have contributed to these increases.

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She gathered her data for her theory from the following sources.
"Where had I gotten all the data? First of all I have been married since 7973 to Frank, who grew up in poverty because his father died when he was 6. Though it was situational poverty, he lived for several years with those who were in generational poverty. Over the years I met his family and the many other players in the neighborhood,' I came to realize there were major differences between generational poverty and the middle class-and that the biggest differences were not about money. But what put the whole picture into bas-relief were the six years we spent in Illinois among the wealthy. It was the addition of the third dimension, wealth that clarified the differences among poverty, the middle class, and wealth" (Payne, 7998, p. 9 )
A review of the data indicates that with regards to accountability Payne's "hidden rules" theory lacks any scientific validity because she uses her own personal experiences, and has not engaged in scientific inquiry or the scientific method. First, her hypothesis is not based on research literature and she has not tested it for internal or external validity. Second, there is no reliability in the increase of the standardized test scores because she has not conducted any qualitative or quantitative experimental research. Third, no pretest, posttest, design was completed before she came into the schools that would lead to a conclusion that her seminars, trainers, workshops, and materials increased standardized scores. Fourth, within the confines of current literature based research on trends and reforms of authentic Professional Development, inherent within her program, there is no built in design for encouraging reflection on behalf of the practitioner (Schon, 1983 ; Schon, 1987).

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Fifth, Payne's videos and materials suggests a certain philosophy and there is no room for deviant opinion (Hargreaves, 1999). In the criteria set forth within the M.E.T.L.A.F study, Payne's approach of, these are the rules, lacks the premise of encouraging teachers to become visionaries of reform (Dutro et al. 2002). Sixth, teachers are not encouraged to discuss, review literature, or look into research that might refute her theory, thereby encouraging the teachers to increase their consciousness of themselves as learners focusing inward on a more "literate life" (Routeman, 1994). Seventh, teachers were not provided with mentors from the local universities in order to create a system of networking, reculturing, and reconstructing which might have lead to the creation of new
values, beliefs, and norms. (Fullan, 1996 ; Leiberman & Grolnick, 1996) Eighth, participants we never involved in research in order to inquire as to how to improve existing practices (Teitel, 1999). Ninth, They never had the opportunity to see themselves as mentors after refining existing philosophies of learning and pedagogy, sharing and articulating them to their colleagues, and following through with execution and implementation in their classrooms (Dutro et al. 2002). Tenth, teachers never had the opportunity to publish a journal article subsequent to completion of her program (Dutro et al. 2002). Finally, there were no instructions given, nor any support provided for participants to have an opportunity to create a portfolio of their experiences with her materials (Slick, 2002).

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Therefore research, suggests that a large majority of teachers who believe that this is authentic Professional Development are in fact are involved in experiences of the ever increasing dichotomy between theory and practice (Stoddard, 1993).
Conclusion
Professional Development defined by the four innovative approaches discussed above while requiring more involvement, seem to be a
better use of ones time and resources in this researchers opinion. They create a continual process of growth and development while exploring new horizons, awakening the desire for learning, and tapping into a wider scope of an individual's potential. Authentic Professional Development would seem to require more effort, but it offers its participants a tremendous amount of challenge and accomplishment. Becoming a visionary to instigate reform contributes to a sense of higher purpose, evolvement, and accomplishment (Dutro et al. 2002).
As stated in the M.E.L.A.F findings school districts are challenged in instigating reform and must close the gap in these inconsistencies of how the individual Professional Development Programs are selected.
I recommend that leaders of the hierarchical structure and professionals within the educational field make individuals more accountable for their work. Thus, eliminating this type of professional development and utilizing resources towards authentic professional development.

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This can happen by creating a peer review board for materials that are used for professional development within the school districts. In addition, criteria needs to be established for material so that it must meet valid, and reliable, scientific measures and methods before entering the schools. Why are these types of counterfeit programs presented to teachers as Professional Development when they lack any valid scientific inquiry, research, and methods? The answer to this question could be based on a New York Times Editorial by Arthur Levine, President of Teachers College, Columbia University. He postulates that school districts within higher socio economic areas, will continue to foster teachers as professionals and continue to require careful training where as urban schools will 'treat teaching as a trade-something to be learned while doing the job" (Levine, 2002). With high attrition rates in urban schools authentic Professional Development appears to be the most viable mechanism for teachers to become grounded in subject matter and pedagogy. Thus, teachers can become more knowledgeable regarding all of the existing criteria that define authentic professional development and they can weed out the counterfeit theories which are presented as credible Professional Development, but are lacking in support of scientific methods and research. Furthermore, materials that foster a continuation of a dichotomy between theory and practice will no longer be the reason for inadequately prepared professionals, because they will have a measure that provides accountability and ensures that they have the tools

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to apply theory in practice through the socialization of professional norms and ethics (Darling-Hammond, 1992. p. 91). In conclusion, with regards to Payne's "hidden rules" theory, workshops and materials, the author of this article is possibly the only educator who has experienced aspects of authentic Professional Development. Therefore, a recommendation is offered that perhaps in the best interest of teachers' authentic Professional Development, and the students’ academic and social development, The deviant attitude that certain “rules are made to be broken” should apply (Hargreaves,1999).

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